Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing is a standard system. It helps in conveying the engineering tolerances and the intent of the design with the help of engineering drawings. The symbol of flatness is also a key consideration for controlling the tolerances of the flat surfaces.

The article below has a detailed discussion on the flatness in GD&T that will help you use it in your components. So, let's read it.

What is Flatness?

Flatness in GD&T is a type of engineering tolerancing tool that helps to control the size of the design. The flatness tolerance is opted for such surfaces that have a flatness that needs to be opted in certain bounds so that the component can function properly. It is a measure for controlling the surface form.

Flatness vs Other GD&T Features

Flatness can be compared with some other GD&T features as follows:

Flatness vs Straightness

Flatness is a three-dimensional characteristic that controls the surface, whereas straightness is a two-dimensional characteristic that controls one single line on the surface. Flatness has its tolerance zone, which is defined by two planes parallel to one another. Straightness has its tolerance zone defined by lines parallel to one another.

Flatness vs Parallelism

Flatness and parallelism are sometimes mixed. Parallelism needs a surface or axis with which it can be related; it cannot work without a datum. Whereas flatness does not require a datum, and it can be used on a surface that is unparalleled to another surface. Hence, the need for a reference point is not required.

Flatness vs Surface Finish

Flatness and surface finish both control the variations in the surface. However, the surface finish does this control in a precise way. Flatness, on the other hand, shows the difference between the path and maximum height.

Flatness vs Regular Tolerancing

Flatness is a tolerance type that manages the consistency of the surface, regular tolerancing determines deviation from design.

How to Show Flatness on a Drawing?

The GD&T flatness tolerance on a drawing is shown using a feature control frame. The first block contains the geometric characteristic symbol for the flatness and it is in the form of a parallelogram.

As the tolerance zone for flatness is a wider one, the symbol is not required in the second block due to it being the default zone for the tolerance type. The second block has material modifiers and tolerance values as needed.

The flatness doesn't need a datum for references and the leader arrow refers to the surface which is under the control. Sometimes, it may point towards the size dimension, indicating that the median plane is under the control of flatness.

What is Flatness at Maximum Material Condition?

Flatness at a maximum material condition is a valid callout that is applied to a feature of size, like width. Rather than the flatness control for the surface, it comes from the median plane instead. The call-out is used by designers to control the size, which is tighter than the entry form.

The tolerance zone restricts the countless features in the given measurements. Such an arrangement is not in effect when the flatness callout with MMC adds to the size of the tolerance using geometric tolerance.

Measuring the Tolerance

The final measurement of the tolerance can be checked using different methods, and these are as follows:

Single Planar Surfaces

Flatness measurement needs a surface plate, probe, or gauges for height. It cannot be measured by just placing the part on the slab.

Using a height gauge

The height gauge is used for measuring the flatness and for the reference features held parallel. Advanced CMM machines are used for inspecting the flatness. They can create virtual planes that look like the surface that is to be checked and measured.

The entire area is covered with the height of the gauge, and positive and negative elements are added to calculate the total variance. This variance needs to be less than the flatness tolerance value.

Using a surface plate

A surface plate inspects the flatness by holding the face on the surface plate using a height gauge. The height gauges and the components are moved in a way that the entire width and length of the surface are covered. The variance is calculated for the total surface.

Feature of Size (Flatness at MMC)

When measuring the flatness, the measurement of the derived median plane is basically conducted. There are two methods of measuring it.

Using a functional gauge

This method uses two height gauges, which are placed opposite to one another. The height gauge is used on the bottom and top surfaces and measures the local thickness. It is then moved along the surface to see if the entire surface is within the size tolerance or not.

The second method uses a gauge that has a cavity that fits the plate at the virtual condition boundary. It is the total available limit for tolerance. In order to be approved, the plate must fit in the gauge.

Using a CMM

CMM makes measurements and it requires covering the same plate, which is posted in a way that the probe reaches the two surfaces. The points are then marked, and the local thickness of these points is measured. If the thickness is within the size limits, the midpoint is calculated.

The flatness is calculated by subtracting the maximum local tolerance of the plate. If the median plane flatness variance is less than the allowed flatness tolerance, the path is approved.

Benefits of Using Flatness Tolerance

There are various benefits of using flatness tolerance, and some of these are as follows:

• Flatness tolerance ensures that parts can fit together, which reduces the chances of misalignment. Many sensitive applications like automobiles and aerospace require such a flatness tolerance.
• Flatness tolerance helps minimize stress, wear and tear, and friction, especially when chosen for the moving components.
• When the flatness is controlled in a component, the overall quality of the components increases and it contributes to the consistency in performance.
• The need for excessive post-processing is eliminated by having flatness control, which reduces the waste of material as well as energy.

Where Can Flatness Be Applied?

Flatness tolerance is opted for by various industries where the precision of components is crucial. The automobile industry, electronics and aerospace are such sectors where appropriate assembly and low friction are a concern in components. Some of the applications where flatness is applied are as follows:

• Gaskets
• Flanges
• Optical parts
• Mating components

Practical Significance of Flatness in Manufacturing

The significance of flatness manufacturing cannot be disregarded; it plays a crucial role in determining if the component will function or not. The section below sheds more light on this subject.

Quality Control and Consistency

Flatness maintains consistency across the entire production run, ensuring that components meet the standards. It is one of the crucial requests in mass production. The use of measurement systems like CMM also helps in measuring flatness, ensuring that components of high quality are produced in each batch.

Cost Implications

Appropriate flatness control also eliminates the need for post-processing like grinding, which causes a lot of material waste. When the components meet the standards of flatness, the production efficiency is enhanced and also the need for extra spending is reduced.

Impact on Functionality

Flat surfaces offer functionality in various applications. Some mechanical components like gaskets when manufactured with appropriate flatness reduce friction between moving components and prevent stress.

Conclusion

The significance of flatness in GD&T plays a vital role not only in enhancing the aesthetics of the components but also in its functionality. The components can be assembled appropriately, the cost of post-processing is saved, and durability is achieved.

If you are looking for components that are highly accurate in terms of flatness tolerance, we at DEK can serve you.

Surface finishing is a crucial part of manufacturing components despite being the last stage. There are many forms of surface finishing, among which bead blasting is widely preferred.

If you are inclined to learn what is bead blasting, and the materials used for this process, the guide below is for you. So, let's read.

What is Bead Blasting?

Bead blasting is a process of surface finishing that treats the surface of many components. It consists of using glass beads at a very high pressure to achieve a clean and smooth surface. The process uses a bead blaster, which directs the particles towards the surface of the metal at a high pressure.

The aim of bead blasting is to create a smooth, clean surface, and it is used for components made using glass, plastic, metals, and even rubber.

How Does Bead Blasting Work?

The process of bead blasting uses a sphere-shaped particle that is subjected to the surface of components at high speed and pressure. The glass beads create a very consistent finish on the surface of the components.

The projection of these beads on the components creates a very smooth and consistent surface with a dull appearance. The process even provides the component with high tensile strength and eliminates the imperfections present on the surface.

What Materials are Used in Bead Blasting?

The different types of particles used in bead blasting are as follows:

Glass Bead

Glass beads are used as one of the most common forms of media for bead blasting. They use soda lime glass in their making, which is free from lead and silica. They are highly durable and can be reused 30 times, and they also do not end up leaving colored patches on the surface.

They are suitable for a wide range of components except for the ones made using extremely tough materials. It offers the ability to clean and polish the surface of the component.

Steel Shot

Steel shot is also a type of media that is used in the bead blasting process. It consists of using small steel beads made through the casting process. The standard sizes of these beads start from 0.125mm to 3mm. They also have a varied range of hardness, and they can be used for hundreds of cycles.

Steel shot beads are used to de-rust and clean surfaces. Such particles are used in heavy-duty applications, and their components are made using cast iron or steel.

Aluminum Oxide

Aluminum oxide offers high abrasive grit and is also tough. Hence, it is used in the process of sandblasting. It has an angular layout, which is hard, and hence, it can easily finish the hardest materials.

Aluminum oxide is mostly opted to round the sharp edges of prepared surfaces for painting. The larger size of aluminum oxide helps with etching and also leaves behind a rough finish. Meanwhile, the smaller sizes leave behind the smooth finish and take more time.

Surfaces that have aluminum oxide blasting carried out will create a matte finish and may cause some discoloration on the surface.

Plastic Media

Plastic blasting media is also used for the process of surface finishing, and the commonly used plastic is urea. It has grains having an angular shape and it is a very gentle form of blasting media. It is even lightweight and can be reused; the plastic particles do not cause any damage and are suitable for delicate materials.

Bead Blasting vs. Sand Blasting

There are two types of blasting: bead blasting and sandblasting. This section below highlights a comparison of both processes.

Bead Blasting

Bead blasting uses a spherical-shaped media, which is made using glass and subjected towards the surface at a high speed. The spherical shape of the particles creates a peening effect on the surface and creates dimples reflecting light.

Pros

• Does not have silica dust or free silica
• Works gently on the surfaces
• It does not alter the dimensions of the component
• The particles can be reused for multiple times

Cons

• Removes coatings and paint slowly
• Does not offer surface etching
• Works very slowly on hard materials

Sandblasting

Sandblasting is an abrasive process that consists of silica sand projected toward the parts at a high speed. The shape and sharpness of sand create an etched surface. The process of sandblasting is used to shape the surfaces and enhance their smoothness. The process is even suitable for removing corrosion and rust. Sandblasted components create a dull finish.

Pros

• It is very quick to remove the coating and paint.
• It prepares the surface for paint.
• Suitable for tough materials

Cons

• Due to the presence of free silica, it may cause health hazards
• It is not suitable for components that are fragile
• This may lead to the removal of material and the alteration of part dimensions.

What are the Best Practices When Designing for Bead Blasting?

When using the bead blasting process, some of the best practice tips you can opt for to enhance the surface finishing are as follows:

• Use low pressure to achieve the best results, as high pressure leads to bead smashing and creates a low-quality finish.
• Sensitive parts are subject to breaking if high pressure is applied. Hence, before you choose the pressure of blasting, consider the delicacy of the material.
• Glass beads are not meant to remove corrosion or rust, and when you need to remove it, use aluminum oxide.
• The abrasive chosen for the surface finishing should be compatible with the material so that the required finish is attained.

Which Industries Use Bead Blasting?

The process of bead blasting is used for a wide range of industries, and some of these are as follows:

• The automobile industry uses it to create components that need new paint.
• Aircraft components also use bead blasting to finish the surface before painting.
• Military parts and firearms are subjected to bead blasting.
• Medical components that are made using aluminum use bead blasting.
• Light poles that need surface finishing use bead blasting.

Blasting Media Selection Chart

The blasting media selection chart below features a detailed insight into different media for bead blasting at a glance.

Bead Blast Finishing With DEK

DEK is a leading name in the manufacturing industry. We manufacture high-quality components using a wide range of materials. We offer all types of surface finishing, among which bead blasting is offered using the right media, creating a high-quality surface finish.

Conclusion

The bead blasting process is versatile and uses particles of different varieties. It can create a neatly finished surface that is clean and consistent. In the guide above, every single aspect related to bead blasting is discussed in detail, helping you choose it for your next project.

FAQs

Can bead blasting be used on complex parts?

Yes, bead blasting offers a consistent finish on complex parts.

How much does bead blasting cost?

The cost of bead blasting varies depending on the type of media selected, the material of the component, and the size of the part.

Is bead blasting a coating?

Bead blasting is not a coating process, but it is a process that prepares surfaces for further coatings.

What metals can be bead blasted?

Bead blasting is suitable for a wide variety of metals, including aluminum, stainless steel, copper, brass, titanium, and many more.

The term ceramic is quite popular, and when you take a look at what it is, you will find its usage in many applications. If you are not well aware of what ceramics materials are and how you can use them in your project, the guide below is for you. So, let's read.

What are Ceramic Materials?

Ceramic materials are manufactured using minerals, clays, compounds, and oxides. These differ from metallic and organic materials, and everything else falls under the list of ceramics. The commonly used ceramics are plates, toilets, tiles, glass, etc.

Ceramics offer durability even when exposed to high temperatures. These have the ability to resist chemicals and also high pressure. Ceramics are not magnetic, and some of them can very easily shatter.

Ceramics are Different from Pottery

Ceramics are commonly mistaken for pottery, but the two things are not at all the same. Pottery is a type of ceramic. Ceramic pottery commonly includes bowls, vases, mugs, and cups. There are artistic designs as well, which are under the head of pottery, and it is one of an older version of ceramic.

What is Ceramic Made of?

Ceramics are made by combining water, clay, powders, and some earth materials. The ratio of the materials varies based on the product which is created and what characteristics it needs. Some ceramics are made using clay, but some can also be made using silica, feldspar, and other additives.

Properties of Ceramics

There are different properties of ceramic materials, and are divided into two categories below:

Mechanical Properties of Ceramics

The mechanical properties of ceramics are given below:

• They have high compressive strength.
• Ceramics have poor impact strength.
• Ceramics have a rigid and stiff structure.
• They also consist of high temperatures for softening and compression strength.
• They have microcracks, which cause brittleness.
• It offers poor shock resistance.

Chemical Properties of Ceramics

The technical properties of ceramics are as follows:

• Ceramics offer chemical stability.
• They have the ability to resist corrosion.
• They do not react with bases and acids as they are inert.
• Some ceramics also act as catalysts in a chemical reaction.

Types of Ceramics

There are different types of ceramics, and the section below highlights each type.

Traditional

Traditional ceramics are made using materials like clay, feldspar, and quartz, which are then wet-molded. These ceramics can serve many purposes, such as magnetism, conductivity, and insulation. They have a structure dependent on the composition of clay. They are used to make household products, such as planters, mugs, jugs, vases, etc.

Advanced

Advanced ceramics are designed for their high performance, which makes them extremely strong and able to resist chemicals and heat. They are made using synthetic powders like silicon carbide, aluminum oxide, and silicon nitride.

Advanced Ceramics

Some of the advanced ceramics are as follows:

Silica

Silica has leachability and thermal shock resistance, which makes it suitable for manufacturing cores and casting shells for the energy and aerospace sectors.

Tungsten Carbide

Tungsten carbide has the ability to remain stable when subjected to high temperatures. It also gets mixed with some metal binders like nickel and cobalt, which helps create cement. It is used in applications like water jet nozzles and cutting tools due to its wear resistance and hardness.

Fire Bricks

Fire bricks are refractory ceramics that resist chemicals and high temperatures. Hence, they cannot break easily, and since they have low thermal conductivity, they offer energy efficiency. These are mostly used in fireplaces and applications of steel and glass making when mixed with clay.

Bone China

Bone China is porcelain which is known for its translucent look, resistance against chipping, and also exceptional strength. It is made from feldspathic, bone ash, and kaolin. It can be molded in shapes that are thin and is used for ornaments, decorative items, and dinnerware.

Silicon Carbide (SiC)

Silicone carbide is one of the common types of ceramic materials which has carbon and silicon which gives it high resistance against wear and chemicals. They are used in applications composed of thermal processing like semiconductor devices, cutting tools, and abrasives.

Titanium Carbide

Titanium carbide has carbon and titanium which is suitable for use in harsh surroundings due to its high stability. It is used in wear-resistant coatings and cutting tools.

Glass Ceramics

Glass ceramics are formed by mixing glass with tiny crystals, which gives a very aesthetic crystalline appearance. It is suitable for manufacturing bakeware cooktops, and cookware offers high resistance against thermal shock and is also very tough.

Pottery Ceramics

Pottery ceramics are also traditional ceramics. Porcelain is a very common type of pottery ceramics that is made using white clay consisting of fine particles and a high level of plasticity. It is strong and durable and can be heated at high temperatures. It is used in manufacturing dinnerware, dental implants, and insulators.

Advanced Applications of Ceramics

Ceramics are composed of many advanced applications, which are as follows:

Biomedical: Ceramics are used in the medical sector due to their strength and biocompatibility; they are opted for manufacturing medical implants.

Aerospace: Various aerospace components like turbine blades and heat shields are made using ceramics.

Energy: The energy sector uses ceramic materials for their heat resistance and thermal stability. They are used for manufacturing thermal insulation, fuel cells, and solar panels.

Electronics: The electronic sectors use ceramics for their excellent stability and ability to dissipate heat.

Benefits of 3D Printed Ceramics vs Metals

3D-printed ceramics offer high resistance against temperature without any changes in their shape or deformation. Moreover, they are very light in weight which makes them suitable for the aerospace sector where weight is a concern. Ceramics also offer corrosion resistance which is a problem with metals.

Benefits of 3D Printed Ceramics vs Plastics

3D-printed ceramics offer various pros when compared to plastics, as they can withstand high temperatures compared to plastics. They are highly durable due to their strength. Moreover, plastics may react with chemicals, which is not the case with ceramics.

Final Thoughts

After you have read the guide on ceramics above you must have understood what is ceramic, what are the different types of ceramics materials. So, if you are now looking forward to getting ceramic components manufactured, you can contact us at DEK.

When you hear about tungsten, you might think of its strength or its use in lightbulbs. But one of its important features is its density.

If you want to know more about what the density of tungsten is, how it is calculated, and the factors that can affect it, this guide will explain it all in simple terms.

Brief Introduction to Tungsten

Tungsten is a very strong, heavy metal. It is one of the hardest materials on Earth that can handle extremely high temperatures.

Because of these properties, you often find tungsten in tools, electronics, and even jewelry. Its name comes from the Swedish words “tung” and “sten” which mean “heavy stone.”

What is the Density of Tungsten?

The density of tungsten is 19.3 grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm³). This means it is one of the heaviest metals you can find.

To give you an idea, tungsten is almost as dense as gold, which is why it feels so heavy for its size.

How to Calculate the Density of Tungsten

The formula to calculate density is simple:

Density = Mass / Volume

If you have a piece of tungsten, you just need to measure its weight (mass) and how much space it takes up (volume).

Divide the weight by volume, and you’ll get the density. For example, if your tungsten piece weighs 193 grams and takes up 10 cubic centimeters, the density is:

193 g / 10 cm³ = 19.3 g/cm³

The Role of Density in Tungsten’s Properties

The high density of tungsten is what makes the metal stand out. When you look at how tungsten is used, you’ll see how its density affects its performance.

Here’s how it works:

High Melting Point

Tungsten has one of the highest melting points of any metal– over 3400°C (6152°F). Its high density helps it handle extreme heat without melting or losing its strength.

If you work in industries like aerospace or manufacturing, you’ll notice tungsten is often used where materials face high temperatures.

Strength and Hardness

When you think about strong, unbreakable materials, tungsten is at the top of the list. Its density gives it high strength and hardness.

This is why you see tungsten used in tools like drill bits, cutting equipment, and even military armor.

If you use tungsten tools, you’ll find they can handle heavy work without bending or wearing out.

Radiation Shielding

If you need protection from radiation, tungsten is one of the best options. Its high density makes it great at blocking harmful rays.

That’s why it’s used in medical equipment like X-ray shields and in nuclear facilities. Tungsten offers safety in environments where radiation is a concern.

Density Variations in Tungsten Alloys

While pure tungsten is already impressive, you’ll often find it combined with other materials to create tungsten alloys.

Tungsten alloys have slightly different densities depending on the added elements, and they’re made to fit specific needs.

Here’s what you should know about the two common tungsten alloys and how their density affects their performance:

Tungsten-Carbide (WC) Alloys

When tungsten is mixed with carbon, you get tungsten-carbide, a material that’s extremely hard and durable. Its density is slightly lower than pure tungsten, ranging from 14-15 g/cm³.

You’ll often find tungsten-carbide in cutting tools, mining equipment, and industrial machinery. Despite being lighter than pure tungsten, it’s still heavy enough to handle heavy-duty applications.

Heavy Metal Alloys

Tungsten-based heavy metal alloys are made by adding elements like nickel and iron. These alloys are very dense, with densities close to or just below that of pure tungsten– around 19 g/cm³.

The added nickel and iron make tungsten stronger, easier to shape, and corrosion-resistant.

These heavy metal alloys are perfect for applications where you need weight and strength. You’ll see them used as counterweights in aircraft, ballast in ships, and even in medical radiation shielding.

Factors Affecting the Density of Tungsten

Tungsten’s density can change based on a few important factors. Here’s what you should know about how these factors affect its density.

Purity

The purity of tungsten is one of the biggest factors. If you’re working with pure tungsten, you’ll get the highest density.

However, when other materials like nickel or carbon are added to make alloys, the density will be a bit lower than pure tungsten.

Pressure

When tungsten is exposed to high pressure, its density increases. The atoms in tungsten get packed tighter, making it denser.

If you’re working with tungsten in a high-pressure environment, like in certain manufacturing or aerospace applications, you’ll notice this effect.

Temperature

Temperature also affects density. As tungsten heats up, it expands and its density decreases. But when it cools down, it contracts, and the density goes back up.

This is something to consider if you’re using tungsten in environments with extreme temperatures, like engines or turbines.

Applications of Tungsten’s Density

Here are 4 common applications where tungsten’s density is significant:

Medical Applications

In medicine, you rely on tungsten’s density for radiation shielding. It protects patients and equipment by blocking harmful rays during scans and treatments.

You’ll see tungsten in X-ray machines, CT scanners, and protective aprons. Its density helps provide safety without making equipment too bulky.

Aerospace Engineering

In aerospace, you use tungsten’s high density for counterweights and ballast. Its compact weight lets you balance aircraft and spacecraft without adding unnecessary bulk.

For engine counterweights and landing gear weights, tungsten provides strength and stability under heavy loads. You’ll also find it in satellites, where its density helps maintain balance while saving space.

Mining and Manufacturing

In mining, tungsten’s density makes it perfect for tough tools like drill bits and grinding wheels. Tungsten-carbide tools are especially useful because they last long and stay strong in tough conditions.

For cutting, drilling, and grinding, you can count on tungsten tools to handle heavy-duty tasks with ease.

Defense and Military

In defense, tungsten’s density is perfect for armor-piercing weapons. Its heavy weight and strength allow bullets and shells to break through tough materials.

You’ll see tungsten used in bullets, anti-tank projectiles, and training rounds. Its density gives these tools the impact and power they need for demanding military uses.

Challenges and Considerations of Tungsten’s Density

Tungsten’s high density is a big advantage, but it also comes with some challenges you should think about before deciding to use it.

One major issue is that tungsten is very hard and dense so it is difficult to machine and shape. You’ll need special tools and extra time to process it, which can increase the cost of your project.

Another challenge is tungsten’s price. It’s more expensive than many other metals, so if you’re working with a tight budget, it might not be the best option.

On top of that, tungsten can be brittle in its pure form. This means it can crack or break under certain conditions, so you have to handle it carefully during manufacturing.

Tungsten is not as common as other materials, so it can sometimes be hard to find in large quantities or in the specific form you need. This limited availability might cause delays if you rely on tungsten for your work.

Lastly, its weight, while useful for some applications, can be a problem if you need lightweight materials.

Density of Tungsten vs Lead

Tungsten is much denser than lead, meaning it’s heavier for the same size. For example, a cubic centimeter of tungsten weighs 19.3 grams, while the same size of lead weighs only 11.4 grams.

This makes tungsten a better choice when you need something heavy in a small space, like for counterweights or shielding.

Tungsten is also safer to handle than lead. Lead is toxic and can be harmful to your health, which is why there are strict rules about how it can be used.

Tungsten, on the other hand, isn’t toxic and is safer for many different applications, including medical and aerospace.

If you need a heavy material that is safe to use, tungsten is often the better option.

Your Tungsten Parts Manufacturing Expert - DEK

DEK is the expert you can trust for high-quality tungsten parts. With our experience and advanced techniques, we deliver precise and durable parts for industries like aerospace, defense, and medical.

DEK ensures your parts meet all standards, making them a reliable choice for your projects. Get a free quote when you contact us today.

Conclusion

In this guide, you’ve learned that tungsten’s high density makes it strong, durable, and useful in many industries.

Its density helps it handle extreme heat, block radiation, and perform tough tasks. Whether it’s pure tungsten or an alloy, understanding its density is important when choosing the right material for your project.

Just remember, factors like purity, pressure, and temperature can change its density.

Glass transition is a commonly observed behavior of polymers that is useful for many applications. However, this transition takes place with many considerations in place, and understanding the glass transition temperature of polymers is significant.

If you wish to learn more about this subject, the guide below can help you.

What is Glass Transition Temperature of Polymers?

Glass transition temperature (Tg) is the one at which the polymers transform from a glass and brittle state to a state of rubber. If you are wondering about what is Tg, then Tg is a very critical feature of the behavior of the polymer.

It gives the region where the changes take place in the glass in terms of its physical as well as mechanical properties.

Which Type of Polymers Undergo Glass Transition?

The three different types of polymers that undergo a glass transition are discussed in the section below.

1. Amorphous Polymers

Amorphous polymers are composed of a molecular state which is random. When at Tg, the amorphous polymers take the state of glass, which makes them stiff, rigid, and brittle.

When they have a lower tg, they have space between the molecules, which allows movement at low temperatures.

When the temperature rises, the materials tend to get softer in amorphous polymers. Some of the amorphous polymers are PMMA, ABS, PVC, etc.

2. Crystalline Polymers

The crystalline polymers have a molecular structure that is highly ordered. They do not get soft when there is a rise in temperature and have a narrow melting point.

Such a melting point is usually above the amorphous polymer's upper range. Some of the crystalline polymers are POM, PEEK, and PET.

3. Semi-crystalline Polymers

Semi-crystalline polymers have a mix of ordered and random structures. The order structures limit the movement of polymer chains, which increases the Tg.

Pros and Cons of Polymers

The pros and cons of polymers are given below:

Pros

• Polymers are lightweight and, hence, are suitable for weight-sensitive applications.
• The polymers offer design flexibility and hence can be shaped with versatility even in complex geometries.
• They are corrosion-resistant and do not even deteriorate due to moisture or chemical exposure.
• Polymers have excellent electrical insulation properties and, hence, are suitable for wiring and electronic applications.

Cons

• Polymers have low strength, which limits their use in high-stress applications.
• Polymers are heat-sensitive as they usually have low melting points and may not be suitable for environments with high temperatures.
• The use of polymers in harsh conditions or UV rays, in the long run, may cause them to degrade.
• Certain polymers are sensitive to some chemicals, which cause them to dissolve or crack.

What are the Examples of Polymers with High or Low Tg?

Polymers with High Tg

Polymers like polymethyl methacrylate and polystyrene have high Tg, and they are brittle and hard.

Polymers with Low Tg

Polymers like polyisobutylene and polyisoprene have their Tg lower than room temperature; hence, they are soft and flexible.

What is the Difference Between Tg and Tm?

Tg is the glass transition temperature whereas melting point is represented by Tm.

• Tg defines the way the amorphous region of the semi-crystalline plastic goes from a glass-like state to a rubber-like state.
• Tm is the temperature at which the crystalline regions in the semi-crystalline plastic turn from solid to liquid state.

What are the Factors Affecting Tg?

Some of the factors affecting the Tg are as follows:

Chemical Structure

• In a polymer consisting of a straight chain, the increase in molecular weight decreases the concentration on the end of the chain, and hence the Tg increases.
• If the molecular structure is bulky, a decrease in mobility is observed, which increases the Tg of the material.
• In cases where there is an increase in cross-linking, the mobility of the polymer decreases, which increases the Tg.
• In case polar groups are present, the intermolecular forces are high, which decreases the free volume and results in high Tg.

Addition of Plasticizers

The addition of plasticizers increases the space between the chains of polymers, which creates space. Such increases allow the chains to slide past, and hence, there is a decrease in Tg.

Water or Moisture Content

Where there is a high moisture content in the polymeric chains, then a decrease in performance appears, which decreases Tg.

Effect of Entropy and Enthalpy

In amorphous polymers, the entropy value is high, and in crystalline polymers, it is low; in case the entropy value is high, Tg is even higher.

Pressure and Free Volume

Due to the increase in pressure, the free volume decreases, and hence the Tg is high.

Other Factors Governing Tg

Other factors which impact the glass transition of polymers are as follows:

• The length of the alkyl chain
• Thickness of film
• Interaction of bond
• Flexibility in the polymer chain
• Branching of chains

What are the Methods to Determine Tg?

The three methods of determining the Tg are as follows:

1. Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC)

DSC is a thermo-analytical method that uses a calorimeter with differential scanning. It monitors the change in the heat flow between reference and sample compared to the temperature or time.

It also determines the polymer’s thermal properties and is used for the amorphous regions of stable polymers.

2. Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA)

DTA is also a thermal analysis method. It measures the material’s Tg. The material goes through multiple cycles of heating and cooling, and a difference is determined between the sample and reference temperature.

The temperature is maintained through the different heat cycles, ensuring that the testing environment has constant conditions.

3. Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA)

DMA analyzes the material stiffness using a mechanical analyzer. The mechanical stress applied on the sample and the instrument measures the strain. It helps to evaluate the glass transition, behavior of stiffness and also the crystallinity degree.

Conclusion

Glass transition temperature is a technical mechanism and understanding it is very crucial for choosing the polymers for different applications.

You can get in touch with us at DEK if you are planning to have components manufactured using different polymers and need high quality.

FAQs

What are the units of glass transition temperature?

The glass transition temperature units are Fahrenheit, Celsius, and Kelvin.

Why is it important to identify the Tg of polymers?

Tg determines the region where the change in physical and mechanical properties of a polymer takes place.

What happens to a polymer at the glass transition temperature?

At the glass transition temperature, the polymer changes its state from brittle to rubber state.

Every industry uses components made with different forms of materials, and the versatility of materials includes PLA and ABS as the two material options.

ABS and PLA have numerous applications, and when compared to one another, they have similarities as well as differences. The guide below features a thorough comparison between PLA vs ABS, so let's read.

What is PLA (Polylactic Acid)?

PLA is polylactic acid, which is a thermoplastic polyester in semi-crystalline form. It is a bioplastic manufactured using plant scratch.

The origin of PLA is two monomers– lactic acid and lactide. PLA is preferred for 3D printing due to the ease of printing and biodegradability it offers; it is also environmentally friendly.

What is ABS (Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene)?

ABS is a thermoplastic polymer that has an amorphous form and an irregular molecular structure. It is manufactured by polymerizing acrylonitrile and styrene. It is a tough plastic and is used in applications requiring impact resistance.

PLA Comparison to ABS

The advantages and disadvantages of PLA compared to ABS are as follows:

Advantages of PLA vs ABS

• PLA is easier to print at low temperatures and doesn't warp. It doesn't even need any enclosure-built chamber or a heated bed.
• PLA breaks down into by-products that are not toxic when subjected to the appropriate conditions.
• PLA offers affordability compared to ABS.

Disadvantages of PLA vs ABS

• PLA can crack easily as it has a brittle nature and cannot withstand impact.
• PLA also cannot withstand UV exposure for a longer span.
• The melting point of PLA is very low compared to ABS, and it is not suitable for use in high-temperature environments.

What’s the Difference Between PLA and ABS?

The difference between ABS and PLA is featured in the table below.

Surface Finishes and Post-processing for PLA and ABS

PLA and ABS, when manufactured, always have layers in the components. PLA has a glossy finish, whereas ABS has a matte finish.

ABS is turned smooth using acetone, and a glossy finish appears over it. Whereas sanding and additional processes of machining are also opted for ABS components. PLA can also be machined and sanded, but a lot of care is needed.

How Strong are PLA and ABS Parts?

PLA and ABS possess identical tensile strength, which makes them suitable for most prototyping applications. Engineers and designers prefer opting for ABS as it is highly ductile.

ABS has better elongation and, hence, is suitable for various applications. PLA is mostly selected for rapid prototyping, in which function is not critical, but the form is.

PLA is a suitable option for custom components if a lot of physical stress is not exercised. ABS is suitable for industrial applications and handles physical strain better than PLA.

How Heat Resistant are PLA and ABS?

ABS offers high heat resistance compared to PLA. PLA ends up losing its structural integrity when submitted to high temperatures and deforms.

Alternative Materials to PLA and ABS

PETG stands for Polyethylene Terephthalate Glycol as an alternative to ABS and PLA. It is between ABS and PLA. It has excellent mechanical properties like ABS and ease of printing like PLA.

Conclusion

ABS and PLA both are highly versatile materials and can be used in many applications. If you are inclined to have the components made using any of these components, get in touch with us at DEK.

We offer manufacturing of custom components using different materials and processes using our years of experience and expertise.

Brass is an important metal used in different industries, and welding brass is important in many areas. Whether you’re repairing parts or creating something new, brass welding is a useful process to use.

If you’re considering welding brass, this guide will help you understand the basics, the benefits, and whether it’s something you can do.

What is Brass?

Brass is a metal alloy made mainly of copper and zinc. Depending on the composition, brass can have different properties.

It’s known for its strength, corrosion resistance, and attractive golden color. You can use it in faucets, door handles, and even jewelry.

If you are curious if you can weld brass to brass, the answer is yes but it’s a bit challenging. Brass melts at a lower temperature than other metals, and the zinc in brass can release toxic fumes when heated.

It is important to take proper precautions when welding brass, like using ventilation, safety gears, and the right welding tools.

Advantages of Brass Welding

Here are some of the advantages you can experience when welding brass:

• Welding brass creates strong, durable connections. You can use it for fixing parts or building structures that need to last.
• Brass welding is useful for many industries like construction, automotive, and art. You can use it for repairs or creative projects.
• It is perfect for decorative items because welded brass keeps its golden look.
• It is a great choice for outdoor or wet environments because welded brass maintains its resistance to rust.

How Alloy Composition Affects Brass Welding

When you’re welding brass, the alloy’s composition matters a lot. As mentioned above, brass is made of copper and zinc.

However, sometimes, it also has small amounts of other metals like lead, tin, or aluminum. These extra metals can change how brass behaves during welding.

If the brass has more zinc, it will melt at a lower temperature. It is easier to overheat and can release harmful zinc fumes.

You can add lead to brass to make machining easier, but this can make welding challenging. Lead doesn’t mix well with molten metal and can weaken your welds.

If you add aluminum or tin, they can make brass harder to weld because they may form a crust or affect how smoothly the metal flows.

So before you start welding, always check what type of brass you’re working with. Knowing its composition helps you avoid problems during the process.

Preparations Before Brass Welding Process

Aside from checking the type of brass you’re working with, you need to get everything ready before you weld brass. Good preparation makes your work easier and safer.

• Shape the brass according to your design and decide how you’ll weld the pieces. Common methods are TIG welding, MIG welding, and oxy-acetylene welding. Let’s discuss them in detail later. So, keep reading!
• Make sure the brass is clean before you start. Dirt, grease, and oxidation can mess up your weld. Use a wire brush or sandpaper to clean the surface.
• Follow the precautions that we’ll provide below to stay safe while welding brass. Don’t skip them– they’re important for your health and safety!
• If you’re new to welding brass, practice on scrap pieces first to help you get a feel for how the metal melts and flows.

Step-by-Step Guide to Welding Brass

After careful preparation, here are the right steps you can follow to help you through the process and get good results:

1.Set Up Your Work Area

Lay out your tools, including your welding machine, welding rod, filler material, flux, clamp, and safety gear.

2. Preheat the Brass (Optional)

Preheating the brass can help avoid cracking. Use a torch to heat the metal evenly before the welding.

3. Start Welding

• Adjust your machine settings for brass. Use lower heat because brass melts at a lower temperature than steel.
• Hold the torch at the right angle to focus the heat on the joint.
• Add the filler material slowly and evenly to make a smooth weld.
• Use a shielding gas to protect the weld from oxidation and porosity.

4. Avoid Overheating

Be careful not to overheat the brass. Too much heat can cause zinc to burn off, weaken the joint, or create fumes.

5. Cool the Weld

Let the weld cool down naturally. Avoid quenching it in water, as that could make the joint brittle.

6. Inspect Your Work

Check the weld for cracks or weak spots. A strong weld should look smooth and even.

7. Clean Up

Use a wire brush to remove any leftover slag or debris. Clean the area to make it look polished.

Methods of Welding Brass to Brass

There are different ways to weld brass to brass. Each method has its own tools, techniques, and benefits. Here’s a breakdown of the most common methods:

MIG Welding Brass

This is one of the simpler methods you can use. You work with a machine that feeds a wire, which acts as both the electrode and filler.

The machine creates a spark to melt the brass and the wire, joining them together. This method is fast, but it can be challenging because brass melts easily.

To get better results, you should use a silicon bronze wire and set the machine to lower heat.

Flame Welding Brass

This method lets you use a handheld torch to heat and melt the brass. You direct the flame at the joint and add filler material to join the two pieces.

Flame welding brass is good for small repairs or creative projects. However, you need to be careful not to overheat the brass because the zinc can burn off and make the weld weaker.

TIG Welding Brass

This is a precise and clean method you can try. You use a tungsten electrode and a filler rod to weld the brass. With a foot pedal, you control the heat, so you’re less likely to overheat the metal.

This method is great for thin brass or projects where the weld needs to look neat. If you try TIG welding, make sure to use a silicon bronze filler rod and lower the heat settings for the best results.

Oxy-acetylene Welding Brass

This method uses a flame made from oxygen and acetylene gases. You heat the brass until it melts, then add filler material to weld.

Oxy-acetylene welding is a good choice if you’re working on larger projects or don’t have access to TIG or MIG equipment. Preheating the brass before you start can help prevent cracks and make your weld stronger.

Electron Beam Brass Welding

This is an advanced method you probably won’t use unless you’re working in high-tech or industrial projects. It uses a focused beam of electrons in a vacuum to melt and join the brass.

This method is very precise and doesn’t need filler material, but it’s expensive and not practical for small or simple jobs.

Safety Precautions When Welding Brass

Safety is important when welding brass. Brass contains zinc, and when it gets too hot, it releases fumes that are harmful to breathe. Here’s how you can stay safe:

• Always weld in a space with good airflow. If you’re indoors, use a fume extractor to remove harmful fumes.
• Wear a respirator to help protect your lungs from zinc fumes. Make sure it’s the right type for welding.
• Use a welding helmet with a proper filter to protect your eyes from sparks and UV rays. Wear heat-resistant gloves, long sleeves, and pants to shield your skin.
• Be careful not to overheat the brass, as this causes more zinc fumes. Use lower heat settings and take your time.
• Remove flammable items from your work area, and always have a fire extinguisher nearby.

Shielding Gases in Brass Welding

When you weld brass, you need shielding gas to protect the weld from contamination. Without it, the brass can react with the air, causing weak welds or defects.

Choose the right shielding gas based on your welding method and the thickness of the brass. Here are the common shielding gases you can use:

Argon

Argon is the most common shielding gas for brass welding. It’s easy to use and works well with TIG and MIG welding. Argon creates a stable arc and helps prevent oxidation.

Helium

Helium is sometimes mixed with argon for welding thicker brass. It produces more heat and offers deeper penetration.

Argon-CO₂ Mixtures

For MIG welding, you can use a mix of argon and a small amount of CO₂. This works well for general-purpose welding, but make sure the CO₂ level is low to avoid excessive heat.

Brass Welding Common Challenges and Solutions

Brass welding has some challenges that you may face, and here’s how you can deal with them:

Zinc Fumes: Always work in a well-ventilated area or use a fume extractor. Wear a respirator to protect your lungs.

Overheating: Use lower heat settings and move slowly to avoid overheating. Consider preheating the brass before welding to reduce the stress.

Porosity: This happens when gas bubbles get trapped in the weld. Make sure to use proper shielding gas to protect the weld from air contamination. Also, clean the brass thoroughly before welding.

Cracking: Avoid rapid cooling by letting the weld cool naturally. Preheat the brass to help it expand evenly.

Applications of Brass Welding

Brass welding has many uses across different industries. Here are some common ways you can use it:

• Brass is commonly used in plumbing for pipes, fittings, and faucets. Welding brass helps repair or join pipes to make them strong and leak-proof.
• Brass is used in car parts like radiators and brake fittings. Welding brass allows you to fix damaged parts or create custom components.
• Many musical instruments, like trumpets and saxophones, are made from brass. Brass welding helps repair or build parts of these instruments.
• Brass has an attractive golden color, so it’s perfect for jewelry, sculptures, and other decorative items. Welding brass helps create unique designs and repairs.
• Brass is used in electrical connectors and terminals. Welding brass can be used to join or repair these parts to ensure proper electrical flow.

Conclusion

Brass welding is an important process for many projects, whether you’re making repairs or creating something new. Now, you know the basics of brass, how its composition affects welding, and the safety tips to keep in mind.

DEK offers great equipment and the right tools for any brass welding job. Contact us today and let our expertise help you weld brass successfully.

When you pay attention to the types of materials used in industrial applications, you will come across a lot of varied options– among which, composites are also quite popular.

Fiberglass is a very common type of composite, and it is used in many applications due to its excellent properties. If you are inclined to learn what is fiberglass and what its types are, the guide below captures it all. So, let's read.

What is Fiberglass?

Fiberglass falls under the category of composites. It is made using very fine glass fibers, and it is a combination of glass and plastic woven into one another.

The glass fibers are known for their superior strength and are used for the coating on their own, consisting of a slightly opaque or completely clear white finish. The best part is that fiberglass can be dyed as needed.

History of Fiberglass

Fiberglass is not a recently developed composite and is quite old. It was invented in the ancient civilization by Egyptians and Phoenicians. However, when invented, it was not as smooth as today and was usually opted for decoration purposes.

In the late 19th century, fiberglass was upgraded, and steam heat was used to cast glass into fibers that could be woven. Later, in 1930, one of the well-known researchers named Dale Kleist created the form of fiberglass, which is now used.

It came into being by welding the glass blocks together, and since then, many improvements have been made in the fiberglass.

How is Fiberglass Made?

A lot of ingredients are used in specific measurements to manufacture fiberglass. It consists of soda ash, magnesite, silica sand, limestone, feldspar, nepheline syenite, alumina and borax. Glass is also used, and in the mixture, resin is added.

Once you have combined the ingredients together, you have to blend them together, they are subjected to a furnace. They melt in the furnace creating molten glass.

The molten glass is then cut into the form of fibers and woven to create insulation, sheets and coatings.

Pros and Cons of Fiberglass

Fiberglass comes with pros and cons, and some of these are discussed below.

Pros

• It is very lightweight and can be easy to transport and handle.
• Fiberglass is resistant to corrosion and hence offers durability when exposed to harsh and moisture-oriented conditions,
• The strength of fiberglass is excellent and can be chosen for structural applications.
• Fiberglass needs minimal maintenance compared to other materials.

Cons

• It can break or crack due to extreme pressure.
• It is costly compared to other materials
• Fiberglass is not recyclable, which is a major environmental concern.
• When exposed to UV rays, it can lose its color.

Different Types of Fiberglass

There are different types of fiberglass, which are given below.

E-Glass Fiber

E-glass fiber is also called electrical fiber and is used for insulation in electrical parts. It is mostly opted in industrial and aerospace applications where heat resistance and lightweight are needed.

D-Glass Fiber

D-glass fiber is used for optical cables, electronic appliances, and cookware, and it has boron trioxide. It is suitable for insulating these products.

R-Glass Fiber (Also Known As T-Glass or S-Glass Fiber)

R-glass fiber offers tensile and acidic strength, which is opted for when manufacturing defense and aerospace components.

A-Glass Fiber

It is a very commonly used type of fiberglass in jars, bottles, and window panes. It is highly affordable, can be recycled, and has excellent stability against chemicals.

Advantex Glass Fiber

Advantex glass is a type of glass fiber that is used in applications where temperature changes and exposure to acids are common. Hence, in the oil and mining industry, it is widely used for power plants and systems that provide sewage for a longer life.

ECR Glass Fiber

ECR glass fiber has high resistance against heat and acid, is environmentally friendly, and can be chosen for manufacturing panels with durability. This type of fiberglass is suitable for exposure to heat, water, and impact.

C-Glass Fiber

C-glass, also known as chemical glass, is suitable for applications requiring chemical resistance. It has calcium borosilicate, which is suitable for applications that are exposed to chemicals and water, like tanks and pipes.

Z-Glass Fiber

Z-glass fiber offers reinforcement for many materials, including concrete and is heavy-duty; it looks like a mesh and is resistant to UV rays, acids and wear.

S2 Glass Fiber

S2 glass fiber supports reinforcing structures, and it offers a suitable choice composed of excellent resistance against compression, temperature and impact. It is suitable for aerospace applications.

AR-Glass Fiber

AR glass is an alkali-resistant glass. It can be used in applications that need slow-down cracking and is very strong. It doesn't get affected due to pH changes or when subjected to water consisting of zirconia in its manufacturing.

M-Glass Fiber

M glass fiber is a flexible fiberglass with elasticity and is suitable for packaging, glassware, housing and tableware applications.

AE Glass Fiber

AE glass fiber is popular for filtering air, and its fibers have the ability to trap unwanted particles to enter space. It is commonly used in environmental or laboratory applications.

Available Formats of Fiberglass

There are different fiberglass formats, which are given below.

Woven Fabrics: Fiberglass is also available in fabric format and is in the form of plain and satin weaves and is suitable for car, boards and surfboard components.

Chopped Strand Mat: It is a thick type of fiberglass that is bound into the form of rolls and is used for spray-up or lay-up processes. It offers strength and wetting ability.

Roving and Tow: This form of fiberglass is unraveled manually or fed into machines so that marine, construction, and aerospace components can be manufactured.

Veil Mats: These are thin mats that are suitable for manufacturing panels and automobile components.

The Properties of Fiberglass

Fiberglass has various properties it possesses, and some of these are the following:

• Fiberglass offers a density of 2.4 to 2.76 gm/cm3.
• It has a boiling point of 1000 degrees centigrade and a melting point of 500 to 750 degrees centigrade.
• The tenacity of fiberglass is 6.3 to 6.9 gm/den.
• It offers poor elasticity and 3% of elongation at break.
• Fiberglass has 0% moisture regained.

The Characteristics of Fiberglass

The fiberglass materials have some beneficial characteristics, which are as follows:

• Fiberglass is very strong but is lightweight and can suit structural applications.
• It has the ability to resist chemicals, corrosion and UV rays, which makes it suitable for long-term use.

• Fiberglass offers excellent insulation against electricity and heat.
• It stays stable during different temperatures due to its low thermal conductivity.
• Fiberglass offers flexibility and hence can absorb impact without breaking.

Applications for Fiberglass

There are different applications of fiberglass, some of these are as follows:

• Boats
• Surfboards
• Piping
• Insulation
• Swimming pool
• Automobile
• Insulation
• Storage and septic tanks

Conclusion

Fiberglass is used in many applications and has been a versatile choice due to its excellent properties. If you are also looking forward to using fiberglass in your applications and require custom fiberglass components manufactured, we at DEK can help you.

FAQs

Is fiberglass strong enough?

Yes, fiberglass is quite a strong material and hence is opted in structural applications.

Is fiberglass harmful to humans?

Yes, sometimes it may trigger allergic reactions among humans.

Why is it an important material in manufacturing?

Fiberglass is opted as a very common material in manufacturing because it offers excellent strength, is light in weight and also offers resistance against chemicals, impact and even corrosion.

When working with materials like stainless steel, understanding their properties is important. One of these properties is density.

This guide will help you know what is the density for stainless steel, why it matters, and how it affects your projects.

What is the Density for Stainless Steel?

The density of stainless steel is about 7.75 to 8.05 grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm³). The exact value depends on the type of stainless steel.

Different grades of stainless steel may have slightly different densities because of their composition.

Density tells you how much mass is packed into a certain volume of material. For example, stainless steel is denser than aluminum, meaning it is heavier for the same size.

Importance of Density in Material Selection and Design

When you choose materials for a project, density is one of the material properties that you need to consider. Here are three reasons why density matters:

Weight of the Final Product

If you need a lightweight product, you might avoid materials with high density. For example, in airplanes, using stainless steel may add too much weight, so other materials like aluminum are preferred.

Structural Strength

The density of stainless steel helps it handle heavy loads. That’s why it’s used in buildings, bridges, and tools. The right density can give your design the strength it needs.

Cost and Transportation

Heavier materials cost more to transport. If your project involves shipping large quantities, choosing a less dense material can reduce expenses.

What are the Common Stainless Grades and their Density?

Stainless steel comes in different grades, which are grouped based on their composition and structure. Each grade has a specific density.

Here’s what you need to know about the most common ones:

Austenitic Stainless

Austenitic stainless steels are the most common. They’re strong, non-magnetic, and corrosion-resistant. Their density is between 7.90 and 8.00 g/cm³. Here are some common grades under this type:

Stainless Steel 304: You’ll see this in kitchen equipment and pipes because it’s durable and easy to work with.

Stainless Steel 316: If you’re dealing with saltwater or chemicals, this is the one to use.

Stainless Steel 310: This works great for high-temperature environments like furnaces.

Stainless Steel 321: Choose this if you’re welding and need extra corrosion resistance.

Ferritic Stainless Steels

Ferritic stainless steels are magnetic, corrosion-resistant, and less flexible than austenitic stainless steels. Their density is around 7.70 to 7.80 g/cm³. Common ferritic stainless steels are the following:

Stainless Steel 430: You’ll find this in car parts or kitchen utensils.

Stainless Steel 409: If you’re making exhaust systems, this grade is a good option because it handles heat well.

Stainless Steel 446: Use this when you need something to resist high temperatures and oxidation.

Martensitic Stainless Steels

Martensitic stainless steels are strong and hard but less resistant to corrosion. Their density is about 7.70 to 7.75 g/cm³. Below are some examples of martensitic stainless steels.

Stainless Steel 410: This is a good choice for fasteners and machinery parts.

Stainless Steel 420: If you’re making knives, this is the grade you’ll want.

Stainless Steel 440C: You can use this for tools or bearings because it’s extremely hard.

Duplex Stainless Steels

Duplex stainless steels give you the benefits of both austenitic and ferritic steels. They are strong and resistant to corrosion. Their density is between 7.80 and 7.85 g/cm³. Some grades under the duplex stainless steel category are the following:

Stainless Steel 2205: Pick this for chemical tanks or marine applications.

Stainless Steel 2507: This is perfect for environments with high chloride levels.

Stainless Steel 2304​: If you need corrosion resistance on a budget, this is a great option.

Stainless Steel Density Chart

Factors Affecting the Density of Stainless Steel

If you understand what affects the density of stainless steel, you can better match the material to your needs.

If weight matters, pick a grade with lower density. If strength and durability are your priorities, focus on strength and hardness– even if it increases density.

Here are the important factors that can affect the density of stainless steel:

Alloy Composition

Stainless steel is made by mixing iron with other metals like chromium, nickel, and molybdenum. Check the composition well when choosing a grade to make sure it matches your needs. The amounts of these elements affect the density.

For example, adding more nickel increases the density, and using lighter metals like manganese lowers the density.

Temperature and Pressure

The environment where you use stainless steel can change its density. At high temperatures, the metal expands, so its density decreases slightly.

Under high pressure, stainless steel compresses and that makes the density slightly higher.

Porosity and Grain Size

Porosity and grain size affect how tightly packed the material is.

If the metal has tiny air pockets or voids, it will be less dense and weaker. You should avoid porous materials for high-strength applications.

Smaller grains fit together more tightly, which can slightly increase the density and improve strength.

Tensile Strength

Tensile strength tells you how much stress stainless steel can handle before it breaks.

Stronger stainless steel grades are usually denser because they have tightly packed atoms or added elements like carbon.

If you need a material for heavy-duty tasks, go for one with high tensile strength, even if it’s heavier.

Hardness

Harder grades of stainless steel are often denser. The hardness comes from adding elements that make the metal stronger and slightly heavier, like carbon and molybdenum.

For tools or parts that need to resist wear and tear, choose a harder grade.

How to Measure the Density of Stainless Steel?

If you want to measure the density of stainless steel, you need to know its mass and volume. There are a few methods you can use depending on the shape of the material and the tools you have.

Regular Shapes

If your stainless steel object has a clear geometric shape, such as a cube or cylinder, you can use a scale to determine its mass.

Then, measure its dimensions (like length, width, height, or diameter) using a ruler or caliper. After that, calculate the volume based on its shape. For example: The volume of a cube = length x width x height.

Irregular Shapes

For stainless steel objects with uneven or unusual shapes, the water displacement method is a practical option.

Fill a graduated container with water and note the initial level. Submerge the object fully in the water. Record the new water level and subtract the initial level to know the volume of the object.

Use a scale to weigh the object and determine its mass. This method is simple and effective for stainless steel with irregular shapes.

Electronic Density Meters

If you need fast and accurate measurements, electronic density meters are a great option. These devices measure both the mass and volume automatically and display the density value directly.

This is ideal if you are working in a lab or industrial setting.

How to Calculate the Density of Stainless Steel?

Calculating the density helps you confirm the grade and quality of stainless steel.

Once you have the mass and the volume of the stainless steel, you can calculate its density using this formula:

Density = Mass / Volume

For example, if the mass is 500 grams and the volume is 63.5 cm³.

Density = 500 g / 63.5 cm³ = 7.87 g/cm³

Practical Applications of Stainless Steel’s Density

Stainless steel’s density ensures it performs well under various stresses while offering long-lasting durability.

Whether you’re designing a building, a car, or a medical device, its density provides the balance of strength, weight, and resistance you need for success.

Here’s how stainless steel’s density is used in different fields:

Aerospace

In aerospace, you can rely on stainless steel’s high density because it ensures components that can handle extreme conditions while keeping the weight manageable.

You’ll find it in engine parts because stainless steel can withstand high temperatures while maintaining strength. For structural components, stainless steel provides the necessary strength and corrosion resistance for various aircraft parts.

Automotive

In the automotive industry, stainless steel’s density makes parts strong and reliable.

Parts like chassis and suspension systems rely on the strength-to-weight ratio that stainless steel offers. The density helps with heat resistance and prevents corrosion, extending the life of the system.

For parts that must absorb impacts in crashes, the density gives the necessary strength.

Medical

The density of stainless steel is essential in the medical field because it helps components maintain high standards for safety and function.

The density provides strength and precision to surgical tools without being too bulky. For medical implants, like joint replacements, the density ensures durability and long-term compatibility with the human body.

Construction

In construction, the density of stainless steel ensures durability, strength, and stability in your structural projects.

Whether it’s bridge cables or support beams, the high density gives stainless steel a strong, lightweight nature that is perfect for heavy-duty uses.

Beams and columns rely on stainless steel’s density for stability under heavy loads.

In building facades, stainless steel’s density allows for lightweight, thin panels that maintain strength, resist weather damage, and offer aesthetic looks.

Marine

Marine environments demand materials that can resist corrosion while remaining strong. The density of stainless steel helps it withstand harsh saltwater conditions.

Stainless steel is common in ships and offshore platforms due to its density, which offers strength and corrosion resistance.

The density of stainless steel is also important for underwater pipelines and marine equipment– where durability is needed.

Your Stainless Steel Parts Manufacturing Expert - DEK

DEK is your go-to expert for stainless steel parts. We use advanced CNC machining to create durable, high-quality parts for different industries.

Whether you need custom designs or large-scale production, we ensure your parts are strong, reliable, and made to meet your exact needs.

Contact us now for precision and top-performance stainless steel manufacturing.

Conclusion

Knowing the density of stainless steel helps you select the right material for your project. It affects the weight, strength, and durability.

With this guide, you can learn how to measure, calculate, and choose the right stainless steel grade for your needs.

Do you know why aluminum is used in so many products? From cars to packaging, this metal is everywhere. One reason for its popularity is its density.

In this guide, you’ll learn what is the density of aluminum, how it benefits us, and why it’s such a great material for many different uses.

Overview of Aluminum

Aluminum is a lightweight, durable metal that you probably use or see every day. Whether it’s in the car you drive, the phone you use, or the packaging for your food, aluminum is everywhere.

It’s a non-ferrous metal, meaning it does not contain iron. It is rust and corrosion-resistant. Aluminum is also easy to shape and can be found in many forms– sheets, foils, and bars.

It’s an important material in industries like construction, transportation, and technology because it’s reliable and easy to work with.

What is the Density of Aluminum?

The density of a material refers to how much mass it has in a given volume. The density of aluminum is about 2.70 grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm³).

This is much lower than many other metals, like steel. This makes aluminum a great choice when you need something lightweight but strong.

Benefits of Aluminum’s Density

Lightweight

One of the best characteristics of aluminum is that it’s lightweight. This makes it easy to handle and move. You’ll find that using lighter materials helps reduce energy use, which makes products more efficient.

Resistance to Corrosion

Aluminum naturally forms a thin protective layer when exposed to air. This layer keeps the metal from rusting or corroding, even in tough weather conditions.

So, if you use aluminum in outdoor products or things exposed to water, it will last much longer without damage.

Recyclable

Aluminum is 100% recyclable. You can reuse it without losing its strength. This helps reduce waste and is good for the environment.

When you recycle aluminum, it also saves a lot of energy compared to making new aluminum from scratch.

Electrical and Thermal Conductivity

Even though aluminum is light, it’s a great conductor of heat and electricity. This makes it perfect for use in things like electrical wiring and heat exchangers.

If you need to transfer energy efficiently, aluminum is a top choice.

How Does Density Vary by Type of Aluminum?

The density of aluminum can change depending on the type or alloy you use.

When it is mixed with other metals like copper or magnesium, the density can be slightly higher or lower. The added metals can affect how compact the material is.

For example, the density of 6061-T6 aluminum is 2.70 g/cm³ while the density of 7075 aluminum is 2.81 g/cm³. 6061-T6 has a higher amount of silicon, while 7075 has a much higher amount of zinc.

Each type of aluminum alloy has a different density that depends on the metals added and how it’s processed, so you can choose the right one for your project.

Density of Different Grades of Aluminum Alloys

Here’s a table showing the density of various aluminum alloys:

What are the Factors that Affect the Density of Aluminum?

Several factors can affect the density of aluminum, and understanding these can help you choose the right material for your needs:

Alloying Elements

When you add metals like copper, magnesium, or zinc to aluminum, it changes the density. Depending on the elements, the alloy may be denser or lighter than pure aluminum.

Temperature

As aluminum heats up, its density becomes lower because it expands. When it cools, it contracts, so its density increases. This means that temperature can affect how dense the material will be.

Porosity

If aluminum has tiny air pockets inside it, its density will be lower. These pockets can form during manufacturing processes like casting.

Impurities

Impurities or unwanted materials in aluminum can change its density. Even small amounts of other substances can affect the weight and properties of the metal.

Mechanical Processing

The way aluminum is processed can affect its density. If it is rolled, extruded, or forged, the metal may become more compact, changing its density.

Grain Size

The size of the crystals or grains in aluminum can affect its density. Finer grains often result in denser, stronger material, while larger grains might make it less dense.

Phase Structure

Aluminum can exist in different phases depending on the temperature and alloying elements. These phases affect how the atoms are arranged, which in turn affects the density.

Pressure

Applying pressure during manufacturing, such as in forging or extruding, can compact aluminum– increasing its density. This can make the material stronger and more durable.

Measuring the Density of Aluminum

There are several methods you can use to measure the density of aluminum:

Archimedes’ Principle

You can measure aluminum’s density by using the Archimedes’ principle.

Submerge the aluminum in water and measure the amount of water it displaces. Then, divide its mass by the displaced volume to calculate the density.

Hydrostatic Weighing

This method involves weighing it while submerged in water. Using the difference between these two weights, you can determine the density accurately.

X-ray Density Measurement

uses X-rays to measure the material’s atomic structure and calculate its density. It’s precise and often used in research or specialized applications.

How to Calculate the Density of Aluminum?

To calculate the density of aluminum, follow these steps:

1. Weigh the aluminum sample using a scale to find its mass in grams (g).

2. Determine the volume of aluminum. You can use a measuring tool or submerge it in water to measure the displacement in cubic centimeters (cm³).

3. Divide mass by volume. Use this formula:

Density = mass (g) / volume (cm)

For example, if your aluminum weighs 27 grams and displaces 10 cm³ of water, its density is:

Density = 27/10 = 2.70 g(cm³)

Practical Applications of Aluminum’s Density Calculations

Knowing the density of aluminum is important for many industries and applications. Here are a few examples:

Aerospace Industry

You can use aluminum’s lightweight nature to design aircraft parts that reduce weight, save fuel, and improve efficiency.

Automotive Manufacturing

Understanding density helps you create lightweight car parts that improve speed, fuel efficiency, and handling.

Construction Materials

When designing structures, you can calculate density to choose aluminum parts that are both strong and easy to handle, like in roofing or window frames.

Packaging Industry

In packaging, knowing the density allows you to create lightweight yet durable aluminum cans and containers.

Electronics

Aluminum’s density and conductivity make it ideal for heat sinks and lightweight components in electronics like laptops and smartphones.

Your Aluminum Parts Manufacturing Expert - DEK

If you’re looking for high-quality aluminum parts, DEK is your trusted manufacturing partner.

With years of experience and advanced CNC machining capabilities, we deliver precision-engineered aluminum components custom-made to meet your needs.

Whether you need parts for aerospace, automotive, or industrial applications, DEK provides reliable solutions with a focus on quality and efficiency.

Let DEK help you achieve your project goals with expertise and top-notch materials. Contact us today for your aluminum manufacturing needs!

Conclusion

Aluminum’s density makes it lightweight, durable, and versatile for many uses like cars, electronics, and packaging.

By understanding its density, benefits, and factors that affect it, you can choose aluminum confidently for your projects.

Its recyclability and efficiency make it a smart, sustainable choice for modern manufacturing and design.